ИСТИНА

German-Russian cooperation in technical innovation: The significance of I. Plotnikov's scientific and instrumental heritage for the disciplinary expansion of photochemistry in the early XXth century Baum Elena (Lomonosov Moscow State University) The history of science can be anything: empirical, philosophical, social. The concept of technoscience , widely utilized in recent years in the works of Bruno Latour, with co-authors and associates, which they use in their philosophy of Science and Technology Studies (STS), provides an integral approach to the subject of the history of science. Bruno Latour demonstrates that social context and technical content are both important to a proper understanding of scientific activity . According to Latour, the facts are constructed by a team of researchers. He writes: «facts are like trains: they don't run without rails». Latour and his associates write about the place of facts in the life of the laboratory. The fact is connected genetically with observation and experiment, a fact arises when the result of observation and experiment is recorded. One researcher reports it to another; they discuss this topic. The fact should be published, it would be mentioned in other articles, at conferences. Thus the fact is replicated. “Boyle’s Law, bacillus Kochii” are precisely the labels introduced into the scientific language. These names are actually the nodal points of the efforts of many people, the nodal points of communications, discussions, publications, etc. From my point of view, such an approach is extremely productive when systematizing historical and scientific material, because it allows us to draw attention to facts that have not yet been given importance. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the physical-chemical laboratory (Physical-Chemical Institute, PCI from 1898) of Wilhelm Ostwald in Leipzig became such a hub for communications. The personality of W.Ostwald, his physical-chemical school established at the Leipzig university (1887-1906), exerted a substantial influence on the development of research in sphere of kinetics and catalysis in Russia and formation of specialists in the area of physical chemistry. The scientist as a pedagogue and a researcher, his methods of conducting experiments, themes of his works exerted a substantial influence at the formation of scientific outlook of the young generation of Russian scientists. The closest assistant of W.Ostwald for a number of years was Russian scientist Ivan S. Plotnikov (1878-1955) . His biography will be presented in my paper. Since 1905 Plotnikov had been engaged in the photochemical subjects. His works, completed under guidance of R.Luther (also arrived from Russia), allowed to attribute a row of photocatalytical processes studied earlier by other researchers. In photochemical monographs of that time they obtained the status of classic ones. It is necessary to note that creation of a new technique for the photochemical experiment was a major consistent of the scientific work of the whole Plotnikov’s life. He learned the experiment equipment arrangement undoubtedly at PCI. According to his reminiscences just here Plotnikov made the acquaintance of Fritz Köhler, a founder of strain-optical workshops in Windscheidstr., 33 . The Firm produced original equipment for the physical-chemical researches by request of Ostwald and his disciples. Moreover, his disciples did practical work in the workshops to learn self-making of measuring devices by agreement between the Firm and Ostwald. First of all Mr. Köhler made Plotnikov an offer to produce in lots and start selling the thermostat for low temperatures that had been developed by the scientist for the dissertation purposes. That was their first joint enterprise. They signed a contract for the future. As per contract the Firm, free of charge, would execute all Plotnikov’s orders on the measuring devices he had designed and would reserve to itself the right to engage in selling them . By Plotnikov 75 items of measuring devices and equipment developed by him were produced by Fritz Köhler within the ensuing years. In 1907 after retirement of Ostwald the young scientist returned to Moscow, where he proposed to develop within Moscow university the theme of Ostwald’s school and for the first time introduced the teaching of photochemistry into study process. Photochemical laboratory that was established in 1913 by professor I.S.Plotnikov within the framework of Moscow university, became the first scientific and study laboratory of such kind in Russia. It was equipped by him at the level of worldwide standards. Plotnikov's laboratory became definitely the “nodal point of communications” of the new field of science of photochemistry, which at that time began to develop actively. And I would say with a “German accent” that his contemporaries noted too. Thanks the scientific activity of his laboratory the disciplinary expansion of the photochemistry in the early 20th century was carried out. And not only in theoretical terms, but also technical. Plotnikov published most of his works in German, and in Germany. He transformed the company “Fritz Köhler” into a “branch of his laboratory”, improving in its framework new instrumentation. For its part, this company was engaged into the promotion of Plotnikov’s equipment. How can we not draw parallels with such situation what Latour called the "pasteurization of France". As I recently found in the materials of the library and archives of the Deutsches Museum (Munich), the company Fritz Köhler published in 1911 a special catalog “Photochemie-Apparate”, a significant part of which was the equipment created by Plotnikov at Moscow University. Archival materials (Central Historical Archive of Moscow (further CIAM)) show that Plotnikov like his teacher Ostwald attached great importance to the students’ independent scientific work. He included the training in making of specialized experimental apparatus into practicum too. So, within few years the scientist established in Moscow University the photochemical world-class laboratory where both research and educational work was successfully carried out. Plotnikov own work in science, the textbooks he wrote played a significant role in formation and individualization of photochemistry as an independent area of knowledge in the last century. Thanks to the activities of company Fritz Köhler, the devices designed by him and his pupils were used everywhere in photochemical practice. F.e., several samples of its devices were purchased by Deutsches Museum to demonstrate the achievements of modern photochemistry. His subsequent research and technical innovations contributed to the deep penetration of photochemistry into medicine and biology.